Increase+in+part-time+employment

= **Introduction:** = toc

After the financial crisis in 2008, the world economic level declined and the unemployment rate has increase faster. In order to create employment opportunities, recently, no matter in which countries, part-time employment has become more and more popular. There is no strict definition of part-time employment to determine a worker is a part time or a full time. In most cases, the definition of part time employment is determined by the company's policy and practices. As the traditional standard for full time employment has been 40 hours a week, most businesses consider part time employment as working less than 30 hours or 35 hours a week (Doyle, 2014). Even some people who have already worked in full-time job they also will work in some part-time jobs. There is no strict definition of part-time employment to determine a worker is a part time or a full time. In most cases, the definition of part time employment is determined by the company's policy and practices. As the traditional standard for full time employment has been 40 hours a week, most businesses consider part time employment as working less than 30 hours or 35 hours a week (Doyle, 2014).

The advantages of part-time employment basically are in the macroscopic aspect, while the disadvantages are in the microscopic aspect. On the one hand, the use of part-time employment enables the businesses, no matter big or small, to decrease their costs. On the other hand, compared to full-time workers, the part-time workers are lack of commitment to the organization and expertise knowledge that is useful for the work (Kokemuller, 2014). Furthermore, nowadays the number of part-time employment increase very faster. Between 2008 and 2009, the permanent employment has decreased for by 2.5% while the part-time employment has risen by 3.6%. Compared to men, women account for larger percentage of part-time employment, constituting 75% of all the part-time employees approximately (European Working Conditions Observatory, 2010).

Under this circumstance, the study on the recent increase in global part-employment has significance to both the HR personnel and the general public. Accordingly, this research aims to observe the increase in the part-employment from all perspectives and thus determine how to make better use of it in the labor market.

= **Definition of part-time employment:** =

There is no strict definition of part-time employment to determine a worker is a part time or a full time. In most cases, the definition of part time employment is determined by the company's policy and practices. As the traditional standard for full time employment has been 40 hours a week, most businesses consider part time employment as working less than 30 hours or 35 hours a week (Doyle, 2014). However, the definition of part time employment proposed by Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has been widely accepted worldwide. According to OECD, part-time employment is a person who usually works less than 30 hours every week in their main job. This definition has allowed the part-time employment to be comparable across countries while the national definitions differ greatly among all countries (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2013). The limit of part-time workers are usually lower than the full-time workers, people who at aged 15 or over, and they have worked in paid work for at least one hour every week or they have a main job but they were absent from work in the reference week also can be called part-time workers. Part-time workers include both the self-employed and employees. Different from full-time jobs, almost all the part-time workers’ earning are depended on their working hours and it always under the full-time wage (Hartman, N/A). Part-time employment is a very flexible working model. Workers are not required to have professional knowledge and it also easy to achieve.

= = = **The growth of part-time employment:** =

As to observe the current condition of part time employment and forecast its future trend, it is important to review the development of part time employment in the human history. Without doubt, part-time work has a long history, but during the Second World War, due to the mobilization of women workers, part-time work seems to be used in a more systematic model. At that time, due to munitions factors, workers especially for women workers need to work 65 to 80 hours every week and it is normal for a person work 10 to 12 hours a day (Riley, 1984). After that, the increase rates of part-time workers were growing faster. Between 1971 and 1981, the part-time employment has increased 19%, mostly were in the service industries (Beechey and Perkins, 1987). In 1995, the rights of part-time workers have been discussed by European Court and they also find that: Pension rights should be awarded to part-time workers (Justice, N/A). In 1997, the share of part-time employment still increased about 4% (Felstead and Jewson, 1999). After that, the rights of part-time workers have been improved. According to UK Government, part-time workers should get the same rights as full-time workers for (GOV.UK, N/A):


 * Pay rates.
 * Pension benefits and opportunities.
 * Holidays.
 * Training and career development.
 * Selection for transfer, promotion or redundancy.
 * Opportunities for career breaks

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Nowadays, the number of part-time employment are still growing, according to figure 1, the part-time employment rate is increased faster especially during 2008 to 2009, to the contrary, the full-time employment rate is continuing to decline.

Figure 1:



There are many reasons result in the increase of part-time employment, for example part-time jobs can provide more free time for people who want to deal with their personal problems such as household and take care of children. Basile (2013) showed five main reasons for people do not need full-time job.


 * People will have more free time.
 * People can be creative.
 * People can do other works they are interested in.
 * People can expand their social circle.
 * People can negotiate for more and do not need to as loyal as full-time workers.

This is a new trend for management, on this occasion; mangers need to find more new ways to manage this kind of staff.

= **Zero hour contract:** = As an innovation in the UK, the zero-hour contract has great driven up the popularity of part time employment in the country since its emergence. This new form of part time employment has provided great convenience to both parties, especially the employers. In United Kingdom, people find a way to manage the employee and it called Zero Hour Contract. This is a very flexible way in employment. Workers do not need to spend whole day in the firms, and employers can use these labor anytime they want.

**Definition:**
GOV (N/A) defined that the zero hour contracts are usually for ‘on call’ work or ‘piece work’, and it shows that:


 * Employers do not need to give these people work.
 * Workers are on call to work when employers need them.
 * It is not necessary for workers to do the work when asked.
 * Employers are responsible for the safety and health of the zero hour contracts staff.



**Rise:**
From 1990s, zero hour contracts has become popular and been grown in the retail, banking and financial services sectors (Felstead and Jewson, 1999). In recent years, the number of zero hour contract still keep growing. Moreover in 2013, the professionals of doctors, journalists and lectures were also being put on zero hour contracts in UK (Financial Time, 2014). According to Spottiswoode (2014) showed that especially in 2013, people on zero hour contracts were tripled than 2012 (figure 2), and it also means that more and more people choice the part-time job instead of full-time job.

Figure 2:

It is not a surprise that the data increase so faster. For example, nowadays, more and more students choose to do some part-time jobs for the pocket money, but they have not enough time to do the full-time jobs and zero hour contracts can provide an opportunity for them to earn the money or anneal themselves. Through the zero hour contracts, they can take care about both study and work. In fact, things happened always has its own reasons. The rise of zero hour contracts is because it will bring a lot of benefits. According to Pennycook, Cory and Alakeson (2013), the zero hour contract allow employers to maximize the flexibility of their labor more easily, reduce the cost of recruitment and training new staff and control the risk.

**Risk:**
Zero hour contract also has many disadvantages, these workers are only paid by hours and they cannot control the time-table. Employers take charge of everything, for example, if the boss does not need more labor, they will never call the worker and do not need to pay the fine of contract. In other words, workers cannot guarantee their work time and income. The observation of zero hour contracts reveals that the increase in the UK’s part-time employment has been driven up significantly by this innovation (McCann, 2008). For the employers, it is a good option to manager human resources due to the great flexibility and freedom it provides. However, for the individuals, this contract is not considered as an ideal option as the stability of job opportunity and income are not guaranteed

= **Unemployment:** =

In the following, this paper will evaluate how part-time employment associates to three factors, i.e. unemployment, gender and productivity. These three factors represent the cause, the internal problem and the outcome of part-time employment respectively. Unemployment has been an inevitable problem all over the world. It is also a bad cycle, the recession has brought an increase in the unemployment rate, and then this will led to recession again. After the recession in 2008, the unemployment rate rose sharply, the highest unemployment rate is close to 2.7 million in 2011. In 2014, totally the number of people in work is 30.19 million and the unemployment people are close to 2.33 million. This is a frightening data, and this means that 7.2% people have no income or they have to do the part-time jobs. Figure 3 shows that the unemployment rate has always been high from 1992 to 2014 (BBC News, 2014).

Figure 3:



Source: Valletta and Bengali, 2013

The figure above illustrates the average percentage of employed individuals working part time in each year from 1976 until 2011. According to this figure, the part-time employment mostly increases during recession periods, which means the cyclical reduction in labor demand drives up the part time employment while increasing the unemployment rate. Due to the large size of cyclical downturn, the part-time employment has increased very significantly during the most recent recession (Valletta and Bengali, 2013).

The unemployment has great effects on the decisions to take part time works. Although some of the part time employees may work for enriching their experiences or broadening horizon, many more works have made such decision due to economic considerations. In fact, not everyone want to do the part-time jobs, and most of them are considered as underemployed (Pollock, 2012). Some of them have a good education background and knowledge, but faced with such a downturn environment, they have to do the part-time jobs. Based on the analysis above, the popularity of the part time employment is in direct proportion to the entire unemployment in the society. The part-time employment typically increases in recessions, when there is prevalent employment. Despite of its persistent recovery period, the level of part-time employment in recent years is not unprecedented.

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= **Gender:** =

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">The previous researchers have found out that there exists over-representation of women in non-career and casual part time employment. According to the Office for National Statistics, the number of men working part-time increase by 218,000 to 2.1 million, and the number of women working part-time increase by 279,000 to 5.95 million (Office for National Statistics, 2013). These data show that women are three times as much as the men in the number of part-time employment. Figure 4:



<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">The dominant status of female workers vs. male workers in the entire labor market is due to two major reasons. One reason is that the objective reason, i.e. the relatively lower requirement of part time employment compared to full time employment. The other reason for this type of employment is the stronger willingness of women to take part time jobs compared to that of men (Cooper, 2011).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Firstly, the dominant percentage of female part-time workers is determined by the inherent characteristics of part time employment. The pay for part time employment has remained a lower overall level. Especially, over the recent decade, the hourly earnings gap between part time employment and full time employment has been continuously. On the one hand, the full time workers always seek to be paid above the minimum wage, and are more likely to be agreed by the employers. On the other side, due to sell market, the part-time employers have their pay greatly squeezed. This increasing gap has negative effects on the gender pay gap currently and in a future long term.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">The second reason for dominant position of female workers over male workers in the part time market is the strength of willingness to take the part time jobs. The attitude to part-time job is different between male and female. In fact, women will more prefer to do the part-time jobs or sometimes they have to do the part-time job. Women in the workplace will have more problems than men, especially for the married women. The reasons are that some jobs are too danger for the pregnant women and when they have children, women may pay more attention to take care of their kids. This is not a kind of discrimination, but it will happen in real life. Thus, some employers also do not want to hire women to do the full-time job. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">On the contrary, men are more adaptable to a large diversity of working environments. Compared to women, men never become pregnant and have less responsibility of taking caring of their children. Due to this reason, men have more freedom to choose between full-time jobs and part-time jobs. It is not surprising that most of them are less willing to take part-time jobs as the full-time jobs have provided enough opportunities and wages. Therefore, compared to female worker, male workers have less existence in the part-time labor market.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">The low status of part-time workers has resulted in inequalities to certain extent in the workplaces in the world. In some countries, such as Japan, the issue of gender inequality has become a quite serious problem that exists in the part time labor market. In both developing and developed countries, the part-time workers, most of whom are women, have been concentrated in low skilled, low paid, and poorly united service sector jobs. For example, the part-time employees in Japan work equal to, or even longer than, full-time employees, but the financial benefits they have received are much lower than their full-time peers. This issue is extremely apparent for women workers due to the strict sexual division of labor in the country (Broadbent, 2003).

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">However, consider the current situation of gender inequality in all aspects, including the full time employment, the issue of gender discrimination in the part–time employment is insignificant in these countries. Part-time employment is still a good option for women as to achieve extra income for living.

Under the circumstances, the number of women working part-time jobs increase very faster. Although this may cause the underemployment of women workers, it still a good choice for women.

= **The relationship between part-time employment and productivity:** =

As is known to all, most part-time workers are earning less than full-time workers, so that it seems like part-time employment will reduce the productivity. However, in terms of cost full-time workers will cost more than part-time workers, so it is counteract some factors such as loyalty and proficiency and equal to increase the productivity. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">The previous research has found out that compared to the firms that have a large share of full-time employment, those with a large part-time employment share are more productive. Precisely, __an__ increase in part-time employment share by 10% is associated with an increase in productivity by 4.8% (Nelen et al, 2013).

According to an investigation from Annemarie, Andries and Didier (2013), part-time employment is actually beneficial for productivity. Firstly companies use a large share of part-time employment are distributing the work time more effectively. In the employment period, part-time workers have to use these hours to increase productivity instead of full-time workers have time to rest such as for lunch or break. Especially for the service industries, firms need to try their best to provide the whole day services but full-time workers are difficult to meet such requirement; on the contrary employers can manage the schedules more flexibly with part-time workers. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Compared to full-timer employees, part-time employees have advantage in different allocations, such as in knowledge, location and schedule. The flexible allocation has allowed the businesses with fully use of part-time employment to allocate their human resources more effectively and efficiently within and without working days. Secondly, part-time workers also can relieve the peak hours, firms sometimes need more labor to meet customer need and part-time employment is easier to achieve. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">As to maximize the profitability, the firms should squeeze the labor costs to the minimum level. In most circumstances, the existing labor force is sufficient to provide services to the customers. However, during the rush hours or busy seasons, the existing labor force is not able to meet the customer demand. It is inconvenient and uneconomic to hire full time employees. In this case, through part-time employment, the firms can increase their productivities.

In a word, for some service industries, part-time employment can improve their productivity, employers can manage the staff more flexible.

= = = **The advantages and disadvantages for part-time employment:** = <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Part-time employment has advantages and disadvantages for both firms and the individual employees.

**Firms:**
Many companies believe that part-time employment can bring a lot of benefits. Without doubt, it is trust, the benefits for firms just as following: Cost: All companies will care about the cost, and all of them will try their best to reduce the cost. On this occasion, part-time employees can help them to reduce the labor cost. Different from full-time employees, part-time employees are paid by hours and the wages always lower than full-time employees. Flexibility: Using part-time employees, firms can manger the schedule more flexibly. Many firms use them to fill the blank period, such as lunch time and weekend. Moreover, if firms do not need them, companies do not need to arrange the works for them. However, part-time employment also has many disadvantages. According to Kokemuller and Media (2014), it at least has two disadvantages: Loyalty: Firms are difficult to get the loyalty from part-time employees, because part-time employees have lower return for their works and they cannot achieve the benefits as the full-time employees. Thus, it is really common for part-time employees leave one firm from another. This bring a big problem that because there is no contract constraint, part-time employees can refuse the order from firms, and this may causes the loss for firms. Knowledge: In fact, part-time employees usually have less familiarity or knowledge for the firms’ culture and business. Compare with full-time employees, part-time employees work less hours and they have not enough experiences and firms basically will not go to training them a lot. Therefore, the quality of their work is relatively lower and more likely to cause customers’ dissatisfaction.

**Employees:**
Obviously, there are many advantages for part-time workers. Firstly, part-time employment provides a very good job opportunity for both students and other unemployed people. Unemployment is a social problem; however, the victims are those unemployed. Without works, they cannot make money for live. Thus, part-time employment is a good solution for them. In the aspect of part-time employment, workers are allowed to have two or more jobs at the same time, and people who have a full-time job also can do the part-time job. Secondly, part-time employees are freer than full-time employees. People work in part-time jobs has more leisure time to do what they interested in or spend more time in family. This is a quite important factor for people work in part-time jobs, especially for those people who have not enough time to do the full-time jobs, such as housewife and students. However, many people or organizations also say no to the part-time employment. Part-time employment will hurt the basic rights of workers (unite, 2014). For a part-time worker, their income totally depends on the employers’ needs and the wages always lower than full-time workers. Thus, if employers’ do not need them, that means they will have no income at all. Moreover, employers can use contracts to cut wages and avoid raises, pensions and other benefits. So that government should strengthen and guarantee the rights of part-time employment.

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== =**Compare with UK and China:**=

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">In the section, the global part time employment will be observed through the comparison between the current part time employment in the UK and that in China. The UK is one of the major developed countries in Europe while China is the largest developing country in the world. Therefore, a comparison between the two countries will be significant to the study of global part time labor market. The numbers of part-time employees in China are growing not really fast. Most of them are students. However, the rights of part-time workers are faultiness. Especially for the students, they need to search the jobs very careful to avoid be deceived. According to GWM (2013), the wages of part-time job normally is between 5 to 30 pounds every day (for students). Relative to the inflation, the wages is very low, but there are still many students choosing to do a part-time job; many parents also support them to do the part-time jobs. Furthermore, for the bottom labor, their income depends on their workload and also very low. This is unavoidable; the large population problem cause China has a lot of cheap labors. Fortunately, with the development of economy, the government will lay emphasis on this problem Compare with China, UK has better human rights protection, part-time workers have more rights in UK, and the government also cares more about this problem. Basically, the wages in UK is around 8 pounds each hour, and the highest one is about 44.49 pounds for aircraft pilots (TUC, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">The comparison of the part time employment in the two countries implies that the part time labor market has a diversity of features while remaining some common characteristics (O'Reilly and Fagan, 1998).

= **Effect of part-time employment:** =

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">The recent increase in part time employment is a mainly caused by the high unemployment rate globally during the recession period. In the economic recession period, especially in the developed countries, the employers have to cut labor forces as to stay competitive in the market. Many of them choose to retain the number of full time employees at a low level while keeping a high part time employment shares. As a result, the increase of part-time employees is faster than full-time employees. Considering the unemployment rates, knowledge, skills and other factors. Part-time employment is a good solution for the over labor market. Most part-time workers do not need special skills and knowledge, and for the employers they also can reduce their costs. Although today's social economic rebound phenomenon, the underemployment and unemployment rate are still a very serious problem. For the good part, part-time employment keeps the works for workers, and also provides workers with a lot of different opportunities in different workplaces. Employees can hold on these jobs and waiting for a better job. Employers can also use these workers to pass away the most different time for business. For the bad part, the wages of part-time employment are very low, and they can have the job only when employers need. In this case, the interests and rights of employees cannot be guaranteed. Furthermore, it is also damage the long-term development for firms; companies cannot achieve the loyalty from these workers. This is also a bad cycle, the fewer employees get, and the less they will return to the firms. In a word, part-time employment changes the original mode of labor, this makes the original fixed labor market tends to be a free market. After that the workers will ‘circulation in the market’ more freely instead of only loyal to one firm.

= ** Conclusion and recommendation: ** =

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">In conclusion, the recent increase in part-time employment is caused by the economic recession. This increase is one the byproducts of the unemployment during the recession period and has been effectively driven up by some innovations, such as the zero hour contracts in the UK. Generally speaking, the number of part-time employment is depends on the economic position of the country. Sometimes, most employees have no choice but to the part-time job, but some people are like this model. However, no matter in which situation, part-time employment is a good temporary solution for the unemployment people. Once the economic recovery, these workers will have the opportunity to move back into full-time work. However, there are also many people enjoy to do the part-time jobs, so that the rate of fluctuation keep steady for the part-time employment. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Based on this analysis, it is expected that part-time employment will decline gradually but still keep at a high level over the next a few years.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Additionally, the issue of gender should be paid attention to while addressing the part-time employment. Traditionally, female employees account for a majority of the entire part time employment shares. The dominant position of women in the part time employment is caused by both the inherent characteristics of part time employment and the women’s strong willingness to take part time jobs compared to that of men.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">While the part-time employment is beneficial to both firms and individuals, it also has negative impacts at the same time. Under this context, the HR managers and policy makers should try to avoid the disadvantages of part-time employment while making full use of it. As part time employment will continue to play an important role in the global labor market, it is important to make improvements to the existing part time employment.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Through reviewing the global part-time labor market, the following measures are recommended for individuals, employees and governments worldwide as to improve the performance of part-time employment. Recommendations for individuals are divided into three parts as blew:

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Firstly, the individuals, if they have spare time, are encouraged to take part time jobs. The individuals should keep in mind that the economic factor is not the only benefit that part-time employment can bring about. Besides an increase in income, the part-time employment is able to help people enrich experience, create job and social opportunities, and increase knowledge. Therefore, it is not necessary for the individuals to take part time jobs only when they have budget tighten.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Secondly, part-time employment is a good option for all individuals in the recession periods. During the recession periods, such as financial crisis, when the unemployment rate keeps a high level, the individuals are encouraged to go to the part-time labor market to find jobs. The part-time employment can bring extra income to the individuals and help them survive the hard times.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Thirdly, the part-time employees in the third-world countries should learn to fight for human rights. Although the part time employees in the developed countries have their human rights well protected, the labor market environments in the developing countries still need improvement. In this circumstance, the individual part time employees should ensure that their human rights are not violated.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Regarding the recommendations for employers, the firms are encouraged to remain their part-time employment shares at a proper level as to maximize their productivities and profitability. Especially, during the rush hours, it is wise for the firms to hire part-time employees as to meet the high customer demand.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Regarding the recommendations for governments, considering the dominant percentage of female part-timers, the government should make efforts to improve gender equality as to achieve the sustainability of part-time labor market. For example, the governments should regulate a policy that any firms that hold views of gender discrimination will be severely punished.

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