Knowledge+Management

toc =About Knowledge Management=

Knowledge Management is the process of capturing, developing, sharing, and effectively using organisational knowledge.

 The term Knowledge Management (KM) was officially coined in approximately 1990 and covers all forms of knowledge including; Explicit, Implicit and Tacit. Although KM can take various forms it is mainly there to serve as a means to share information within a company (see Community of Practice) where without a KM strategy there would not be sufficient information being shared efficiently in order to achieve the common goal.

 Since being defined KM has developed various different form factors which are not specifically covered here but may be of interest; these include:
 * Social KM
 * Personal Knowledge
 * Semantic KM
 * Semantic often also defines the structure of K M as a whole as well

Objectives and Considering Success Expectations
In organisation's efforts to drive KM they always have varying expectations, and before understanding objectives it is important to understand objectives change based on expectations of the management team. For example an organisation which endeavours to deploy a KM strategy that gains large uptake but achieves moderate uptake experiences a //failure//; if the organisation expects little uptake and experiences moderate uptake by contributors then this is considered a //success.// By understanding expectations you can therefore understand objectives accurately.media type="custom" key="25432366"

 **Objectives**
 * Enhance internal collaboration
 * Capture and share best practices
 * Create and encourage e-learning
 * Provide a return on investment
 * Create project workspaces

Frameworks and History
KM is a topic which has seen experiential growth in recent years, thanks to improvements in the field. These improvements include technological influences and research in to frameworks for understanding how best to promote the sharing and distribution of knowledge. In early 2000 KM became the "buzzword" of many professional, and was subsequently overhyped; many organisations starting creating KM strategies when KM was not suitable for what they involved in. This resulted in a sharp spike of failures, and for that reason KM still has a negative connotation to some.

 To develop a KM team ensure that those within share the same critical view of the field.

Knowledge Management: Then and Now
Since before the name was coined and officially recognised, KM has always existed in various forms. Open forums, discussion groups, training, seminars and journals are all pre-technological forms of KM. These methods have allowed the sharing of information either within organisations or whole industry fields since the respect method its self was invented. They suffer however from the self explanatory issues:  Technological advancements solve the majority of these issues, the nature of technology makes it possible to add and edit from anywhere in the world; this is known as a KM system (see below). These newer methods are not without issue however:
 * Difficult to maintain
 * Distribution costs and time
 * Gaining further contribution can be difficult due to the physical location factor
 * Collaboration access can be too open (in some cases people can edit when they should not due to lack of knowledge etc)
 * Cost of deployment does increase in some cases where access is spread to those who were previously without
 * Opportunity cost to the organisation if some members become to involved

Frameworks
**Integral Management Model**  The Integral Management Model is the best possible example of //lead by example//; depicted as a way in which the stake holders values can be intrinsically developed to show contributors from the top down how knowledge should be spread for the benefit of all.

 This model is not always appropriate though; in organisations where the management have little in depth knowledge of what is being complied the top down approach will fail. In situations like this choosing one member of the team to take the lead will be more appropriate.

 media type="custom" key="25432194"**Levels of Maturity**  Developed by the American Productivity and Quality Centre (APQC) it is a framework guide for completely inexperienced organisation to start benefiting from KM. Structured in a stepped fashion the framework has been used to develop KM strategies within the management of huge firms which are entering new areas of exploration. One the organisation has established its self, the framework looks to reflect back; understanding its performance and applying this as the process repeats its self.

 There are additional frameworks that are not covered here but are important to have a knowledge of when considering KM strategies to introduce.

 **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">Additional Frameworks **
 * System KM (not to be confused with KM systems)
 * Normative management as a model
 * Integrative knowledge sharing

=Common Barriers to Entry= <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">KM is integral for some organisations from day one; for others however it is an addition that comes about because of a need that arises due to its evolving operations. For the latter organisations they often experience problems when trying to introduce KM.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> These problems often fall within one of two categories : <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Implementation barriers are those which prevent an organisation in starting a KM strategy; this maybe during any phase until it is deployed across an organisation, or part of. These barriers may also occur in the process of updating a framework and when considering retaining the knowledge in the same form as not to damage it's worth. Contributor barriers are those which arrive once the framework, system or rules have been outlined by an organisation; the barriers here all represent a lack of take up for one or more specific reasons.
 * Implementation
 * Contributor involvement

Cost (Implementation)
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">One of the most common //implementation// problems that arises is the cost of deploying KM; as the knowledge is often spread in different physical locations it can result in a considerable amount of support and teaching to enable contributors to share their knowledge. This attributes to a high running cost - even when using free KM systems.

Language Variations (Implementation)
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">Within an organisation that has employees located globally there is the inevitable problem of encountering language variations. Although many KM systems can cater for various languages within the system (such as menus and options) in order for the system to work the knowledge that is being curated must be able to be shared amongst other employees that do not share the same language. This is exacerbated by the fact that many organisations use KM systems to collate highly technical information; containing language that may not be easily translatable, or retain the same level of accuracy.

Organisational Culture (Contributor Involvement)
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">Often negative organisational culture can seriously harm the opportunities within a company to share the knowledge in order to develop their operations. In such situations contributors maybe resistant to cooperation with the KM ; this is often a result of: <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> These are all issues that are often covered in Change Management; and often with successful change management these issues can be overcome.
 * Poor communication of changes
 * Poor staff to organisation relations
 * Lack of awareness of benefits
 * or purely no willingness to change established routines

=Knowledge Management Systems (KM System)= <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">KM systems are usually IT based environments which are designed to "deliver the KM required for the specific organisation". KM systems usually take very different forms, depending on the requirements and operations of the organisation managing it. Common examples for knowledge that is curated in such systems include:media type="custom" key="25432202" <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> These systems are rarely operating solely alone and count on the input of other system as account management software, consumer data and crowd sourcing applications. Either as standalone software or part of a large framework these systems can deliver highly improved solutions - that is not always the case though. KM systems need to be fully understood to be regarded as a success as is explained below.
 * Global sharing of engineering knowledge
 * Development of open standards technology
 * Global brand development (aim to deliver a consistent approach)
 * Recording highly specific knowledge in mission critical applications, such as Nuclear Power Management (NPM)
 * E-learning or academic environments

Key Media Formats in KM Systems
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Decision Support Systems ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Presents historical information and collects data from various sources which enable responsible parties to make informed decisions. Data on these decisions is often then saved so subsequent decision making can be informed further.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">Document Management ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Used commonly in creative, mechanical or academic environments to allow version management, sharing and storage of various file types.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">Group Collaborating ("Groupware") ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"><span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">media type="custom" key="25432206"As the name suggests this is where knowledge is shared, often in a forum style, to reach a common goal or solve problems and find solutions for sometimes very obscure projects.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> These systems are often associated with very large private or government organisations; often the systems are mission critical. They allow users to input data and receive outcomes based on vast databases. This system enables the outputted knowledge to be shared within the community which then looks at the results and acts accordingly.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Si mulation Systems **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">**Examples of this;**
 * Aircraft simulation (data is fed back to engineers)
 * Government disaster planning (knowledge learnt is shared to enable management in real world situations)
 * Defence development

Key Community Types in KM Systems
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">Although KM systems vary dramatically between different organisations, largely dependant on the media type, there are two key ways in which the communities KM systems evolve.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> ** User Led ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> User Led systems are normally operated in individual departments or across specific role types such as a global engineering team. These systems allow a "here and now" approach, typically associated with product development or problem solving within a company.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.1em; line-height: 1.5; text-align: start;"> Moderator Led ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1em; text-align: start;"> Most commonly associated with very hierarchical organisations where top level management have a great deal of involvement; //Moderator Led// systems rely on specified users taking the lead curating the knowledge of their fellow co-workers. Systems such as this normally collect data in a very structured format; designed for the purpose of retaining the knowledge for future use such as training new staff <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">

Examples of KM System
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">**StackExchange**media type="custom" key="25432566" <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> [|StackExchange] is a free, growing public user base is a community system at the forefront of KM between organisations and the public. There are currently 116 networks which cover knowledge topics from programming, electrical engineering, English language and martial arts; these networks have collectively gathered over 8.7 million questions and 15.2 million answers. The network is based on the original programming community StackOverflow; which because of its community by design the format was rolled out to additional topics. Based firmly on a "collate, share and distribute knowledge in the world" strategy the communities seek to answers highly specific questions; culminating in the sharing of knowledge. Facebook has previously endorsed the system for their developer support; however a decision in 2011 by StackExchange determined that they would no longer support company specific communities as this knowledge was better fitted in their programming communities and available for anyone to access.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> StackExchange sites revolve on a //User Led// community; each question and answer can be awarded votes, with some cumulating thousands of votes, this helps to filter through the information being shared. This format allows the best knowledge to be spread efficiently and ensures its use for future users. Most importantly this KM system has been designed from the ground up to be historical; accredit able and with the emphasis always being on referencing and explaining your answer - not just providing a solution.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> There are however problems associated with StackExchange, for example user can find themselves overwhelmed with information which can be to technical for them to apply. Additionally users complain of suffering from "reverse rush hour", where if you don't post at the busiest time your question maybe lost within the vast array of questions being asked everyday and never be answered.

Boeing
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">As a commercial airplane market leader established in 1916, Boeing Systems was one of the leaders in developing the principles of KM and subsequently KM systems in later years. Contributor's use various systems, mostly bespoke built, within their everyday operations, the types of systems they use are as follows.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> **Document Storage and Collaboration** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Working with hundreds of global partners such as Rolls Royce the organisation has developed new systems to allow document storage (normally specification designs) between the companies. Boeing have previously highlighted that the relationship operations remain separate and whilst specifications are shared across the system the companies do not tend to collaborate unless it directly involves both parties responsibilities.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> **Simulation** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> There is a huge requirement for testing and development within the commercial aircraft industry. Simulators are used to gather information, which can then be transformed into knowledge by the processing KM system; as the system learns the knowledge is passed on to trainee pilots or engineering teams to address highlighted issues.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Boeings systems represent one of the great success stories, despite the cost and management that is involved this can be considered from an exterior perspective as a success. Their objectives would have included to remain as a market leader and deliver market leading, innovative, products; which they have done with the 777 Dreamliner.

Internet Archive
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">media type="custom" key="25432824"The Internet Archive is an American not for profit organisation which strives to gather as much information as possible from the internet; preserving it in a historically sensitive manner for the future generations benefit. Storing over 398 billion web pages (including revision versions) in the same way they were presented originally. This volume of data requires an incredibly involved KM strategy and unlike much of what else has been discussed it is not built for a single organisation, it is completely open to the public to use anyway they see fit.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Fitting very much in the //Document Management// category these systems is increasingly becoming highly valuable; however the single center that this organisation has, and the uniqueness it holds, is a threat to its future. In an event of a disaster or political instability the knowledge may be lost; this must be a consideration for all KM system - how to preserve the knowledge not just today but in the future.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">media type="custom" key="25432224" =Knowledge Management Failure= <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">There have been many success stories, such as Boeing, for deploying KM; however there are cases where due to the mentioned barriers to entry or other reasons the introduction of KM fails.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> One such case is Engico, an engineering firm, who attempted to replicated a best practice KM system developed by Ford for the motor industry; this would have allowed similar engineering firms to consult one another and share their observations. The project commenced in 1999 however was halted in 2002 when Engico admitted the this project of crowd sourcing of knowledge failed, mainly due to the lack of voluntary uptake of sharing knowledge. Although lack of uptake was the final blow for the system, several factors will have contributed to getting to that point.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Engico likely failed for these reasons :
 * Poor leadership by KM team
 * The projected added to much of a burden to employees work loads
 * The technology was inadequate
 * Poor company culture attitude towards sharing knowledge

=Conclusion= <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;">media type="custom" key="25433250"KM can be incredibly powerful - on the other hand too many organisations are attempting to manage knowledge that they don't have or don't need to manage in such an involved way. Each company should step back and look at available resources to not only build but support the strategies once they are established. Equally as important is that when if an organisation choose to use a KM system the system is well defined, set up and updated properly with lead "moderators" ensuring quality of content, or allowing the community to moderate this themselves.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start;"> Reference notes: Some references are included twice as the Wiki does not allow the same reference number to exist twice. References are not sorted in any order because of Wiki constraints.